LANGUAGE ARTS 9 NOTES
Please refer to these unit notes when you encounter terms or items of consideration that you do not understand. Be sure to refer to the appropriate section.
SHORT STORY NOTES
I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SHORT STORY
a) “Short Story” is the name given to a fictional prose selection which is short. It can be read in one sitting, and the average length is 3000-6000 words. It is called a “story” because it narrates an event or incident that is “made-up”.
b) It is based on one incident, situation, or character.
c) The short story has few characters.
d) It presents one conflict from which suspense arises.
e) The short story may or may not have a definite conclusion or outcome.
f) It is usually fictitious, but may be based on fact.
g) The short story is concerned mainly with creating one impression, mood, or effect.
h) Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849) is considered to be the “father” of the short story form.
II. TYPES OF SHORT STORIES
There are 4 types of short stories: plot, character, setting and theme. Few narratives can be neatly categorized into one “type”. Thus, a student should be prepared to thoroughly explain his/her identification of a story type. Please note that although a story is classified into a type, such as theme, it will still contain the elements of plot, setting and character.
1) Character Story- This type focuses on revealing the personality, feelings, and motives of a character (usually the protagonist).
2) Setting Story- The interest centers in the surroundings or the place. The setting dominates the story, makes the plot possible and determines the types of characters.
3) Plot Story- The focus of the story is on the action- what is happening or is about to occur. Quite often a character meets a test, resulting in a struggle or conflict.
4) Theme Story- The central idea is more important than characters, setting or plot. However, they may be used to develop a theme story.
III. PLOT IN THE SHORT STORY
Plot is the sequence of actions or events of which a story is composed. Although an author may or may not follow the elements in the order given here, these elements are almost always found somewhere in the story. Plots can be organized 3 ways:
i. Chronological Order: by time- first event, second event, next, etc.
ii. Flashback: Start in the middle of the story and flash back to the beginning, then continue to the end
iii. Interweaving of many plot strands- typical of soap operas
ELEMENTS OF PLOT
A) EXPOSITION- This is the background information that the reader must be aware of if he is going to understand the story. It may be stated directly or implied. The exposition may also serve as the introduction to the story. The exposition contains:
1) the setting (time period, place, and mood/atmosphere)
2) the antecedent action (the events that have occurred prior to the story taking place that the reader needs to understand for the story to begin/take place.
CONFLICT- This is the clash of actions or the problems to be solved. There are three types of conflict in the short story, one of which will form the major conflict.
1) Human vs. Human (external)
2) Human vs. Environment (external)
3) Human vs. Him/Herself (internal)
B) INITIAL INCIDENT- the event that starts the conflict/problem of the story. It leads to the rising action.
C) Rising Action- This is the development of the events that will lead to the climax or resolution of the conflict. It includes the bulk of the story. The rising action contains a series of events that interfere with the expectations of the main character, often creating suspense as they proceed. (Suspense is a quality developed that arouses the reader’s curiosity and anxiety regarding what will happen next. It is created by an unusual set of circumstances, called “mystery”, or by “dilemma”. A dilemma occurs when a protagonist is put in a position where he/she must choose between two desirable/undesirable courses of action. Foreshadowing can also create suspense. It occurs when clues make the reader aware that something could happen)
D) CLIMAX- This is the highest point of interest, suspense or tension in the story that leads to the resolution of the conflict. It usually occurs near, or is, the end of the story.
E) FALLING ACTION- This is the sorting out of loose ends following the climax.
F) CONCLUSION- The end of the conflict. Outcomes may be happy (comedy- the conflict is solved successfully or the protagonist obtains what he wants), unhappy (tragedy- the conflict is not solved and the protagonist is beaten by the antagonist, or he does not obtain what he wants), or indeterminate (the conflict is not solved). Unhappy and indeterminate endings are justifiable when they are realistic and force the reader to ponder life.
3 TYPES OF CONCLUSIONS OR OUTCOMES:
1) Surprise
2) Completed- either happy or unhappy
3) Indeterminate- no conclusion is stated and the reader must form his/her own conclusion.
G) DENOUEMENT- This may or may not occur in the story and is an explanation of the ending. The author may choose to explain the climax or what has happened to the main characters following the climax.
PLOT DIAGRAM-
D)
E)
C) F) and/ or G)
B)____
A)_____________
IV. CHARACTER IN THE SHORT STORY
Character development in the short story will depend on the relative importance of the character to the overall story. Generally speaking, few characters (usually two to four) are fully developed in the short story.
Types of Characters in the Short Story
1. Protagonist- This is the central character who is trying to reach a goal.
2. Antagonist- This is the character of force who tries to stop the central character (protagonist) from reaching his/her goal.
3. Round Character- This is a fully developed character who has many traits.
4. Flat Character- This character has one or two traits and is not developed. He/She is not a main character.
5. Dynamic Character- This character experiences a permanent personality
(Developing) change.
6. Static Character- This character is the same at the end of the story as he/she was at the beginning.
7. Stock Character- A stereotyped character who is not the central character. (“dumb jock”, “dumb blonde”).
8. Foil Character- A character who emphasizes the main character (usually through contrast).
V. POINT OF VIEW IN THE SHORT STORY
Point of view refers to the method that the short story writer uses to tell his/her story. One method is used in each story. The writer does not use more than one to tell his/her story due to the limited space of the narrative.
1) Omniscient Narrator Point of View-
The author knows the past, present and future of ALL of his/her characters. He/She can take the readers into the characters’ minds. This point of view uses the third person.
2) Limited Omniscient Narrator Point of View-
The author knows the thoughts, feelings, past, present and future of only ONE character (the protagonist). This story is also written in the third person.
3) First Person Narrator Point of View-
The author becomes a “participant” in the story. The story is written in the first person and frequently uses the pronouns I, me, and my. The author can only relay information about the character’s past and present situation.
4) Objective/Dramatic Narrator Point of View-
The writer “records” only what is seen or heard, and he/she does not go into the feelings or thoughts of the characters. His function resembles that of a “movie camera”. This story point of view is written in the third person.
VI. SETTING IN THE SHORT STORY
Setting encompasses the details regarding time (historic, seasonal and time of day), place (country, area region, building, planet, etc.), mood/atmosphere, and the surroundings or circumstances of the story. These details may be very specific or very vague; however, they do limit themselves to ONE time, place, mood and circumstance. Settings may have symbolic significance and may relate to the theme of a narrative.
VII. THEME IN THE SHORT STORY
1) Theme is the controlling idea or central insight of a piece of fiction. It is the unifying generalization about life that is stated or implied by the story.
2) All stories do not have a theme, but most do.
3) Theme exists only:
a) When the author has attempted to record life accurately or to reveal some truth about life OR
b. when the author mechanically introduces some concept or theory of life into the story to act as a unifying element.
4) A narrative may have several themes, but there will usually be ONE central insight which unites sub-themes.
5) Theme is derived by recognizing the central purpose of the story. What did the author wish to reveal about life or human nature?
6) Writers do not usually state themes; they reveal them. Theme is the author’s revelation of life.
7) Principles for the statement of theme:
a) Theme must be stated in a sentence. A phrase or word does not denote theme.
b) Theme must be a generalization about life. (Don’t refer specifically to the story or protagonist when stating the theme. Be general)
c) The statement of theme must not exceed the scope of the story. It must account for all the details of the story and not contradict any details of the narrative.
d) Avoid any statement which reduces theme to a familiar moralistic statement.
VIII. SYMBOLISM IN THE SHORT STORY
A symbol is something that represents something else. It is usually a concrete object that is used to reveal some other idea or quality. Symbols are usually recognized in a story when they are emphasized or repeated during the narrative. Some examples of symbols in our culture include:
White- purity, innocence
Black- death, evil
Dove- peace
Snake- evil, treachery
Crossroads- a choice
IX. IRONY IN THE SHORT STORY
Irony involves a discrepancy between appearances and reality. Irony is often used to help reveal the theme. There are 3 kinds of irony:
a) Verbal Irony- This involves a discrepancy between what is said and what is meant. A character says one thing while conveying an opposite meaning.
Example: “It’s easy to quit smoking. I’ve done it hundreds of times.”
b) Dramatic Irony- This is the contrast between what the character says or thinks and what the reader knows to be true. The reader knows more than the characters in the story.
Example: In the Odyssey, the enemies of Ulysses wish good luck and success to a man the reader knows is Ulysses himself in disguise.
c) Situational Irony (also called Irony of the Situation)- This is the most important kind of irony for the author and reader. It involves a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually occurs.
Example: King Midas, in a famous fable, is granted his fondest wish, that anything he touches will turn to gold, and then he finds that he cannot eat because his food has turned to gold.
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Figures of speech notes
People generally assume that writers only use figures of speech in poetry. That assumption is purely FALSE. Figures of speech are used to create a picture in the reader’s head by appealing to the five senses of sight, taste, touch, sound, and smell. Writers, from all genres, rely on the figures of speech to communicate their messages.
1) Simile- a comparison of two unlike objects, using “like” or “as”.
Example:
Her hair shone like gold. (compares the colour of hair to the colour of gold)
2) Metaphor- a comparison of two unlike things WITHOUT using “like” or “as”. Essentially, a metaphor states that one thing “is” another, or speaks of one thing in terms of being another. There are 3 kinds of metaphors:
A) Directly Stated Metaphor-
Example:
The road was a ribbon of moonlight. (The road, reflecting a silver sheen, is compared to a long, narrow ribbon of moonlight.
B) Implied Metaphor- The comparison is stated indirectly.
Example:
As the runs began to pour over the plate in a torrent, the team cheered in excitement. (The speed at which the baseball team made runs is compared to the speed of the torrent of a swollen stream)
C) Extended Metaphor- The metaphor is developed in several comparisons, perhaps over a few sentences or over the course of an entire poem.
Continued
Example:
All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances,
And one man in his time plays many parts…
(Shakespeare)
3) Personification- occurs when a writer gives human actions or qualities to animals, inanimate objects or to abstract ideas.
Examples:
The mother fox whispered a lullaby to her young. (Foxes do not sing lullabies)
Death smiled as he walked in the door. (Death is an abstract thing, and is given the human characteristics of smiling, of walking, and given a physical form that is able to walk through a door)
The birch sighed and whispered in the breeze. (Gives the tree the quality of being able to communicate in voices)
4) Onomatopoeia (Imitative Harmony)- occurs when you use words that sound like what they describe.
Examples:
Hiss, buzz, hum, sizzle, ker-splash, thud, thunk, boom, sploosh, crunchy, babble, mumble, vroom, oozing, smack
5) Hyperbole- This figure of speech uses words to create an exaggerated picture FOR A SPECIAL EFFECT.
Examples:
I’ve told you a zillion times not to exaggerate!
“Mommy, I threw the baseball half-way across Alberta today!”
His sleeves dangled a mile below his fingertips.
6) Litote- is an understatement.
Example:
“I did okay on the test today.” (The student received a mark of 94%)
7) Alliteration- occurs when the first consonant in a series of words is repeated FOR A SPECIAL EFFECT. (at the start of the word)
Example:
To sit in solemn silence in a dull, dark dock,
In a pestilential prison with a lifelong lock,
Awaiting the sensation of a short, sharp shock,
From a cheap and chippy chopper on a big, black block.
(Gilbert and Sullivan)
8) Consonance- occurs when a consonant sound is repeated at the beginning, middle or end of a series of words FOR A SPECIAL EFFECT.
Examples:
“The pitter-patter of little feet.”
The little child was lulled to sleep.
9) Assonance- is the repetition of the same vowel sounds. Note: The vowel sound is repeated, but it does NOT have to be spelled in the same way.
Examples:
The howling wind was very loud.
The sad cat sat on a mat.
10) Pun- is a play on words. It can be a play on the different meanings of one word such as “grave” or on the meanings of two words that sound alike such as “air” and “heir”. The listener is led to expect on meaning, but is fooled by the substitution of another. In poems, puns are often found in the final line, which is called the punch-line.
Examples:
Sticks float. They would. (The play is on the meanings of the words “wood” and “would”)
“Are you a little hoarse?”
“No, I’m a little boy.” (The play is on the two words “hoarse” and “horse”)
11) Allusion- is a reference to something famous that the author assumes the reader is familiar with. Often, the reference is to something literary, biblical, historical, or mythological.
Examples:
She had a Mona Lisa smile and big, blue eyes. (Mona Lisa is a famous painting)
We’ll follow the piper wherever he may lead. (Reference to the novel The Pied Piper of Hamlin)
On his head was the biggest, shiniest top hat since Abe Lincoln. (Historical person)
John, like the prodigal son, had a hard lesson to learn. (Biblical reference)
12) Apostrophe- the writer addresses someone absent as though present, someone dead as though alive, or something inanimate as though animate.
Example:
“Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him…” (Yorick is the skull of an old friend that is being addressed- from Hamlet)
13) Metonomy- is a highly specialized form of a metaphor. It is the use of the name of one thing/part for that of another with which it is associated.
Examples:
Orders came from the White House. (Instead of saying the President or his staff)
We are studying Shakespeare. (We really mean that we are studying his plays rather than the man himself)
14) Oxymoron- is a deliberate combination of contradictory words usually for the purpose of shocking the reader into awareness. NOTE: Paradox involves the combining of two contradictory statements/ideas (not two words).
Examples:
He was the wisest fool in the world.
Avoid accidents by making haste slowly.
She displayed cruel kindness.
To err is human, to forgive divine. (paradox)
Poetry notes
I. TYPES OF POETRY: All poetry can be classified into either Narrative Poetry or Lyric Poetry.
II. Narrative Poetry: It is essentially poetry that is organized around a time sequence. This form is similar to narrative (story) prose selections in that a plot that contains characters, a setting, and a basic theme is developed.
1. Epic Poetry is a form of narrative poetry that contains a broad theme. The theme reaches beyond the affairs of mere individuals to things concerning an entire nation or the world as a whole. Tradition would make people familiar with the theme. The subject matter is taken from history, religion, legend or mythology. The supernatural element is usually prevalent. Action is always on a large scale; powerful forces are in conflict. The character is usually involved in a struggle with opposing forces. The action is more important than the individual. The same metre is used throughout the poem. Examples of the epic include The Iliad, The Odyssey, Beowulf, and Paradise Lost.
2. Story Poems are simple narratives, usually intended for a young audience.
3. Ballads (Traditional) are narrative poems that tell a story. They come from the works of minstrels or reciters and are one of the oldest forms of literature. A minstrel who sang ballads was similar to a “talking newspaper”. Ballads date from approximately AD. 1200-1700. The first written ballads were not recorded until about the year 1800 when Sir Walter Scott wrote down the songs people in the Highlands of Scotland were singing. Thus, ballads cannot be the work of an individual poet. Ballads are sung and usually short and simple. The main characters of them were often heroic: kings, knights, etc. The language is very simple in them. Ballads have a pleasing rhyme, and they usually have stanzas that are four lines in length (lines two and four rhyme). There is frequently a refrain or repetition. The story may revolve around some great adventure or tragic event. Elements of the supernatural (ghosts, witches, etc) are often present. The most common themes are love, war, hatred and tragedy.
4. Literary Ballad
Characteristics (in comparison to traditional ballads)
a. uses a definite rhyme scheme and rhythm
b. the supernatural element is usually strong
c. the author is known
d. has a definite introduction and setting
e. relatively modern in scope
f. the story related often has a tragic element
III. Lyric Poetry: It is the expression of human feelings in poetic form. The lyric expresses the author’s own mood, emotions and reflections in musical language. The reader looks at life through the author’s eyes.
1. Blank Verse is a poetic form that is unrhymed verse written in iambic pentameter. It is often used in serious poetry. Historical usage includes most of Shakespeare’s plays, Milton’s Paradise Lost, and Wordsworth’s longer poems. (Iambic pentameter is composed of five units of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one).
Example:
The quality of mercy is not strained;
It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven
Upon the place beneath. It is twice blessed:
It blesseth him that gives and him that takes.
‘Tis mightiest in the mightiest. It becomes
The throned monarch better than his crown.
-from The Merchant of Venice (William Shakespeare)
2. Free Verse does not try to follow any rigid requirements or to obey conventional rules in poetry. The lines may vary in length from one word to as many as the poet wishes to include. There is no regular rhyme scheme. The poem is not arranged in conventional metric feet, but it usually does have a rhythm. The achievement of results usually comes through clarity of presentation, the use of strong images, arrangement, originality and freshness in point of view.
Example:
Poems
written by
masochists
flop like cows
in the meadow.
Take pity on me
they cry, pay
attention. I
am so sensitive
to nature and
full of milk
3. Limerick is a five-line nonsense stanza of anapaestic feet; the first, second, and fifth lines being trimeter and the third and fourth dimeter. The rhyme scheme is aabba.
Example:
There once was a faith-healer of Peele
Who said, “Although pain isn’t real,
If I sit on a pin
And I puncture my skin,
I dislike what I fancy I feel.”
4. Parody is a piece of writing that achieves humorous effect by mimicking the structure or content of a serious selection.
Example:
Anything ever written by “Weird Al” Yankovic.
5. Haiku poetry is an ancient Japanese verse form of three unrhymed lines containing seventeen syllables in all. The conventional poem usually includes a comparison, allusion, or a paradox, refers to a season of the year, and is comprised of five, seven, and five syllables respectively. North American usage, however, interprets the Haiku as a simple metaphorical three line, 5-7-5 syllable poem.
Example:
The falling flower
I saw drift back to the branch
Was a butterfly.
IV. Rhythm, Meter, Rhyme, Stanza Forms
1. Rhythm is an important element in all language. It can be defined as the regular recurrence of accent or stress. IN any polysyllabic word in English, one of the syllables receives a greater stress than the others. Pronounce, for example, the following words:
Photograph Photographer Photographic
Notice which syllable is the most heavily stressed in each word. Stresses are marked in the following manner:
Pho/ to / graph pho/ to / gra / phic
Single syllable words, when used in a phrase, are stressed or unstressed according to the meaning of the phrase.
Down the street
When these phrases are used in sentences, the stress may shift.
We walk down the street.
This alternation of stresses and unstressed syllables and words is the rhythm of all language.
2. Meter is the rhythm of language that is evident in our speech, our prose, and our poetry. In poetry, there is a regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables; this is what gives verse its rhythmic pattern. This regular pattern is known as meter. Each poem has a meter of its own.
A. Foot- It is customary to divide each metric line into units, or selections, called “feet.” One foot usually contains one stressed syllable and its associated unstressed syllables.
It is/ an an/cient Mar/ in er.
This line has a total of four feet. Lines with different numbers of feet have different names:
Monometer- one foot
Dimeter- two feet
Trimeter- three feet
Tetrameter- four feet
Pentameter- five feet
Hexameter- six feet
Longer lines are possible, but they occur very infrequently.
B. Types of Metrical Feet- Meters differ in the number and arrangement of their syllables.
Iambic- is the most important and most used in English verse. This consists of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one ( ).
Example:
My heart/ is like/ a sing/ing bird/
In this example, we have four feet in the line, and each foot is iambic. The pattern of these lines is therefore iambic tetrameter. The greater bulk of English verse is written in an iambic meter.
Trochaic- is a stressed syllable preceding an unstressed syllable ( ).
Example:
Soft ly/ through the/ crim son/ twi light/
To the/ gate way/ of the/ sun
This example shows a fairly common variation of the trochaic foot; the omission of the final unstressed syllable, as in the last line.
Anapestic- is a stressed syllable following two unstressed syllables ( ). This foot is closely related to the iambic foot and is also often used to replace the iambic foot.
Example:
The Assyri/an came down/ like a wolf/ on the fold/
Dactylic- is a stressed syllable preceding two unstressed syllables ( ). This form is seldom found making a complete metrical foot. It is usually found forming one foot of another type of metrical foot.
Examples:
Gra du al Mar gar ine Marg ar et
Spondaic- consists of two syllables to form this pattern: ( ). This type also only forms part of another type of metrical foot.
Example:
Yet there isn’t/ a train/ goes by/ all day.
3. Rhyme
A. Labeling (for end rhyme)
i) Label the first line of the poem with the letter A.
ii) Label the second line of the poem either:
A if it rhymes with line 1, or
B if it does not rhyme.
iii) Label the third line of the poem:
A or B if it rhymes with either lines 1 or 2, or
C if it does not rhyme.
Continue in the same fashion throughout the remainder of the poem.
Example:
There was a youthful scion A
Of a race of tyrant kings, B
Who roused his father’s anger C
By the way he wasted things. B
The rhyme scheme would then be- A B C B.
B. Types of Rhyme- There are two basic categories of rhyme: perfect and imperfect:
Perfect: thing-swing
Imperfect: crooned-ground
Using either form, they may be classified into the following types:
1) Internal Rhyme- The rhyming of words that occur within a line of poetry.
Example:
On Christmas Day, we were mushing our way over the Dawson Trail.
2) End Rhyme- The most common form that entails the rhyming of words at the end of the lines.
Example:
The woods are lovely, dark, and deep
But I have promises to keep.
3) Masculine Rhyme- The rhyming of words of a single rhyming syllable or of the last syllable.
Example: fun-run one-sun concealed-revealed
4) Feminine Rhyme- The rhyming of words with multiple syllables, with the first rhyming syllable accented and the other rhyming syllables not accented.
Examples: showers-flowers impulsively-convulsively
4. Stanza Forms
A stanza is a group of two or more lines in poetry that contains a main idea (similar to a paragraph having a group of sentences that contain a main idea).
Common stanza patterns include the couplet (two lines), the triplet (three lines), and the quatrain (four lines).
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NOVEL NOTES
I. General Characteristics
A. Definition
A novel is a long prose story that is largely imaginary. Its chief purpose is to entertain, but its underlying aim is to help readers to understand life. It is an extended narrative, which is distinguished from the short story and from the work of middle length called the novelette. Its length permits a greater variety of characters, greater complication of plot(s), a more in detail development of setting, and a more subtle exploration of character than do shorter forms of prose literature.
B. Early History
The novel can be traced back to ancient Roman and Greek literature. In ancient times, most long narratives were composed in verse (poetry). The first known fictional narratives, even though they were poems, were the epics The Iliad and The Odyssey, written by Homer between 800 and 700 B.C.
C. The Modern Novel
The novel as we know it emerged in England in the early 18th century. Daniel Defoe is credited with writing the first true novel (1719- Robinson Crusoe). His form had a sequence of episodes and a convincing central character who was set in a solid and factually real world. From this point, the English novel developed through the writings of Henry Fielding, Jane Austen, Sir Walter Scott, Charles Dickens, and others, and became a highly-developed form of prose.
II. Conventions of the Novel
A. Definition
The novelist begins with an experience, however, he does not work by a formula, but rather he is guided by certain principles. In selecting material for his novel, the author looks for ideas that will create relevancy and economy. Every incident, every detail, has a reason for being included. This is known as Artistic Unity. In arranging his material, the author makes use of repetition and variety. This involves subtle and constant reminders as the story progresses of what has gone on before as a means of maintaining continuity. The novelist requires a certain technique which aids in the production of a good, sound novel. This technique is divided into three parts: Basic Elements- setting, plot, character, theme; Literary Devices- imagery, symbolism, irony; Form- structure, style.
B. Basic Elements
Setting, plot, character and theme are the four essential elements of fiction. When analysing a novel, plot and character can be considered together because they go hand-in-hand.
a. Setting
In a novel, the author does more in the setting than indicate the time and place. He gives the setting information at the beginning, but further details, closely interwoven with the characters and plot, are added as the novel progresses. The whole picture must be considered in determining how he makes the setting function in the organization of the novel. The author must make the setting relevant to the reader at the beginning, but then must build it up consistently through repetition so that the reader does not lose the feeling for the setting established at the beginning of the story. Therefore, the setting is important not only in the first few pages, but throughout the novel.
b. Plot and Characters
Although all parts of a novel relate functionally to each other, plot and character are inseparable. The plot, which is defined as the structure of the action or the sequence of events, shows certain characters capable of usually consistent behaviour under different kinds and degrees of pressure. This pressure may come from any factor or either personality or environment. This pressure can also be called conflict. All readers want to be able to understand the character of the novel and to be able to have sympathy with a character. The character must be believable. The more believable the characters are as individuals, the more clearly they emerge as human beings with potential for both good and evil.
What makes a character believable? The description of his physical characteristics, the statements he makes, what others think of him, a given analysis or obscure hints as to what goes on in a character’s mind. Plot and character achieve unity through the values held by the main character- the protagonist. Since a reader brings to a novel his own sense of values, he will relate most with characters whose values are close to his own.
c. Theme
The relationship of a novel to its theme is a complicated one. The theme is implied by the actions; it is not directly stated. It makes a general statement about human values. The author tries to suggest the underlying idea by revealing the values that motivates behaviour as characters act in response to pressure.
C. Literary Devices
The three main and most useful literary devices used by the author are imagery, symbolism, and irony. They appear in a novel for only one reason- to reinforce some aspect of the basic elements.
a. Imagery
Imagery is used to enable the reader to visualize setting, characters and action. The author also uses imagery to heighten the emotional effect to bring the reader into the story as an active participant. The uses of imagery are many and may be just a general description of an idea or theme to very specific descriptions of certain objects, people, or places. The novelist uses colourful words to pass along an interpretation to the reader of the time in question.
b. Symbolism
A symbol stands for something else- it represents something not shown. A symbol should not be confused with a sign. A sign is simple, giving only a single meaning to the mind, but a symbol is more complex, signalling to both the mind and emotions. Symbols represent a variety of ideas, attitudes and feelings. The symbol not only represents a physical object, it also creates a feeling by working on the emotion (i.e. the flag).
c. Irony
Irony presents a difference between appearances and reality- between what words seem to say and what they really mean- between what basically may be expected to happen and what actually does- between what seems to be the correct outcome of action and the actual outcome. Irony may be as simple as sarcasm or as complex as the reasons for writing a novel in the first place. It can be divided into two categories- Irony of Situation and Irony of Statement (Verbal Irony).
i. Irony of Situation
This form of irony comes from a particular set of incidents or circumstances that contain opposing or differing elements. When a novel has two or more events happening which are in conflict with each other, then it has irony of situation.
Example 1: A lawyer breaks the law to prove he is a good lawyer.
Example 2: A man kills his uncle so as to inherit his money only to find out that the uncle had a terminal illness with only a month to live and he would have received the money anyway.
ii. Irony of Statement (Verbal Irony)
Irony of statement is used to include all forms from words or ideas within a statement, rather than from the situation.
Example: “It’ll probably be tonight”-- “On Sunday?!!” A lynching on Sunday is shocking beyond words; any other day of the week it would be quite acceptable.
D. Form
Form means the entire work of the author’s technique in which he achieves meaning, unity and integrity. The author’s form includes both structure and style.
a. Structure
Structure in a novel includes the arrangement of incidents whereby the character is revealed and the suspense, climax, and resolution of the conflict are achieved. It is the basic framework of the novel. Structure also includes ideas, images, statements, and details of action. In using these factors of structure, the author can achieve unity and build towards the climax of the novel. The structure provides balance in the novel between character, ideas, and emotions which heighten suspense and makes the idea of the novel clearer.
b. Style
Style means the author’s use of language. The words which the author uses, and the way he combines and arranges them are style. Style refers to all the language in the novel, whether it is dialogue between characters, description of a situation, or a narration of events.
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DRAMA NOTES
People have always used drama to express their ideas, to work out their conflicts, and to experiment with ways to face the challenges of each new day.
Drama is one of the most complex forms of art because it involves colours, light, movement, proportion, and emotions. Drama is also one of the most fascinating forms of art because it explores ideas about human relationships.
Tradition has it that formal drama began about 550 B.C. IN fact, drama was present far earlier with religious rituals centuries earlier in the Greek city state, Attica, and in Athens. The first dramas drew on Greek mythology. Both Greek tragedy and comedy can be traced to religious rites which celebrated the annual birth and death of Dionysus, the god of nature and fertility. The Greeks created a staging area which they called a theatre, from the Greek word meaning “to see”. Today, the main outlines of the Greek theatre are found in the large outdoor types called amphitheatres or bowls.
English medieval drama grew out of religious ceremonies, just as Greek drama did. And like the Greek drama, the English drama before the Elizabethan age had a religious basis- the life and teachings of Christ. Two play types emerged: the morality play and the miracle play (1200-1500’s). In 1576, Richard Burbage built a permanent structure to be used only for presenting plays. It was the first permanent English playhouse. In 1599, together with William Shakespeare, he moved his theatre and renamed it to The Globe Theatre. There were no women actors on the Elizabethan stage. Boys played all the children’s and women’s parts.
Modern drama really began with the great Norwegian playwright, Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906). By 1875, Ibsen and his followers were writing drama that used the new theatre very well, sometimes to comment on current social problems. The actors (by this time women were allowed on stage) spoke in a natural manner and used everyday language. One result was that the stage was changed from an area for entertainment to an area from which the playwright could confront people with interpretations of the times in which they lived.
Today, with important technical advances in lighting and sound effects, drama survives both as entertainment and as a growing, living art form. The media of radio, television, film and the internet are bringing drama to larger and larger audiences.
Terms to Know:
Act: is made up of scenes; it is a major section of a drama. In classical and Shakespearian drama, there were usually five acts. Most modern dramas are presented in three acts, although some have only two or even one. A one-act play may or may not be divided into scenes.
Anticlimax: is a drop, either intentional or accidental, in the tension or excitement generated by the climax of a play. The anticlimax usually occurs near the end.
Antihero: is a character who lacks the qualities needed for heroism. An antihero is not noble in life or mind and does not have an attitude marked by high purpose or lofty aim.
Aside: occurs when words are spoken by a character but heard only by the audience and not by other characters on stage.
Atmosphere: refers to the dominant mood of a dramas created by the setting, description, and dialogue.
Character: is a person represented in a play. Character also refers to the disposition, traits, or behaviour patterns that the dramatist gives to the agents, or characters, of the drama.
Comedy: is a major form of drama which aims at provoking laughter by exposing human folly. The term is also applied specifically to a play of light and amusing character with a happy ending.
Comic Relief: is a humorous scene, incident, or remark within an essentially serious or even tragic drama. It is placed there in order to evoke laughter as a release from the tension of the serious action.
Conflict: is the element of struggle in a dramatic action which results from the interplay between opposing forces in the plot.
Dialogue: is conversation. In general, it refers to the parts of the dramatic text intended to be spoken out loud by the actors. It is an interchange of speech between two or more characters.
Diction: is the choice and use of words.
Drama: is a composition in prose or verse presenting in pantomime and dialogue a narrative involving conflict and usually designed for presentation on the stage. The term comes from the Greek dran, meaning “to do”. \
Dramatis personae: is a Latin term for characters of a drama (the cast).
Dramatist: is the author of a dramatic work. Later, the term became more widely accepted as playwright.
Epilogue: is a closing speech, following the action of a drama, delivered by one of the actors directly to the audience.
Fantasy: refers to any dramatic work in which the action occurs in a nonexistent and unreal world. It transcends the boundaries of known reality.
Melodrama: is a form of play that intensifies sentiment, exaggerates emotion, and relates sensational and thrilling action.
Prologue: is any introductory speech preceding the action of the play.
Scene: is a subdivision of a play or of an act of a play.
Soliloquy: is a speech made by a character while he or she is alone on stage. It is usually lengthy and reveals the character’s innermost feelings.
Stage Direction: Any part of a dramatic script not intended to be spoken in performance. This includes directions for entrances and exits, descriptions of the characters and setting, and comments on how lines are to be read.
Subplot: is a minor or secondary line of action in a drama. It usually contrasts or reinforces the main plot.
Tragedy: is prose or verse drama which is serious in nature. It possesses the power to affect the reader/audience by dealing with the stresses of being human and the nobility of the human spirit in the face of this stress. A tragedy revolves around a character who has a flaw that leads to his downfall and destruction.
